VITAMIN D AND ASTHMA IN CHILDHOOD
Abstract
Asthma is the most common chronic disease in children and one of the most common chronic disease in adults. It is defined as а chronic inflammatory disease of the airways, caused by the influence of many different cells and cellular elements (eosinophiles, mast cells and T-lymphocytes). The symptoms usually appear in childhood, and are associated with atopy and sometimes persist into adulthood. In the last decades, there has been an increased scientific interest in the research of vitamin D and its immunomodulatory effects, as well as the association of vitamin D deficiency and allergic disease development, especially asthma in childhood. The study was prospective and was performed at the Pulmonology Department at the University Children’s Hospital in Skopje on 120 oupatient children between the ages of 2-14 years. The examined group consisted of 60 children with asthma, and the control group consisted of 60 healthy children. Serum levels of vitamin D was measured in both groups. The examined group was treated with inhaled corticosteroids, and the participants with vitamin D deficiency were also treated with oral vitamin D. The results from the pulmonary function testing for bronchial hyperreactivity and the episodes of bronchoobstructions after 6 months follow-up were compared to the one at the beginning of the asthma therapy. Mean serum vitamin D levels in the asthmatic children were 24.57 ± 10.0, and for the healthy children they were 28.74 ± 9.5, with a statistical significant difference of p=0,0021. 46,67% of the asthmatic children had vitamin D deficiency, versus 15% of the healthy children. In our study, vitamin D supplementation had no significant impact in asthma control efficacy. Children with asthma have lower serum levels of vitamin D, versus healthy individuals. Although vitamin D supplementation in asthmatic children hasn’t improved the asthma treatment efficacy, the data shows positive therapeutic effects in patients with more severe symptoms.
Key words: asthma, vitamin D deficiency, children.
References
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11. DeLuca HF. Overview of general physiologic features and functions of vitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Dec;80(6 Suppl):1689–96.
12.Kanis JA. Vitamin D metabolism and its clinical application. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1982;64(5):542–560.
13.Bikle DD. Vitamin D metabolism, mechanism of action, and clinical applications. Chem Biol. 2014 Mar 20;21(3):319–329. doi: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2013.12.016. Epub 2014 Feb 13.
14. Jones G, Strugnell SA, DeLuca HF. Current understanding of the molecular actions of vitamin D. Physiol Rev. 1998 Oct;78(4):1193–1231.
15. Kimmel-Jehan C, Darwish HM, Strugnell SA, Jehan F, Wiefling B, DeLuca HF. DNA bending is induced by binding of vitamin D receptor-retinoid X receptor heterodimers to vitamin D response elements. J Cell Biochem. 1999 Aug 1;74(2):220–228.
16. von Essen MR, Kongsbak M, Schjerling P, Olgaard K, Odum N, Geisler C. Vitamin D controls T cell antigen receptor signaling and activation of human T cells. Nat Immunol. 2010 Apr;11(4):344–349.
17. Deluca HF, Cantorna MT. Vitamin D: its role and uses in immunology. FASEB J. 2001 Dec;15(14):2579–85.
18.Camargo CA Jr, Rifas-Shiman SL, Litonjua AA, Rich-Edwards JW, Weiss ST, Gold DR, Kleinman K, Gillman MW. Maternal intake of vitamin D during pregnancy and risk of recurrent wheeze in children at 3 years of age. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Mar;85(3):788–795.
19. Devereux G, Litonjua AA, Turner SW, Craig LC, McNeill G, Martindale S, Helms PJ, Seaton A, Weiss ST. Maternal vitamin D intake during pregnancy and early childhood wheezing. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Mar;85(3):853–859.
20.Jerzynska J, Stelmach W, Rychlik B, Lechańska J, Podlecka D, Stelmach I. The clinical effect of vitamin D supplementation combined with grass-specific sublingual immunotherapy in children with allergic rhinitis. Allergy Asthma Proc. 2016 Mar;37(2):105–114.
21.Stelmach I, Majak P, Jerzynska J, Podlecka D, Stelmach W, Polańska K, Gromadzińska J, Wąsowicz W, Hanke W. Cord serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D correlates with early childhood viral-induced wheezing. Respir Med. 2015 Jan;109(1):38–43.
22. Majak P, Jerzyńska J, Smejda K, Stelmach I, Timler D, Stelmach W. Correlation of vitamin D with Foxp3 induction and steroid-sparing effect of immunotherapy in asthmatic children. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2012 Nov;109(5):329–335.
23. Esposito S, Lelii M. Vitamin D and respiratory tract infections in childhood. BMC Infect Dis. 2015 Oct 28;15:487.
24. Najada AS, Habashneh MS, Khader M. The frequency of nutritional rickets among hospitalized infants and its relation to respiratory diseases. J Trop Pediatr. 2004 Dec;50(6):364–368.
25.Principi N, Bianchini S, Baggi E, Esposito S. Implications of maternal vitamin D deficiency for the fetus, the neonate and the young infant. Eur J Nutr. 2013 Apr;52(3):859–867.
26. Poon AH, Laprise C, Lemire M, Montpetit A, Sinnett D, Schurr E, Hudson TJ. Association of vitamin D receptor genetic variants with susceptibility to asthma and atopy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004 Nov 1;170(9):967–973.
27.Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2010.
28. El-Abd Ahmed A, Hassan MH, Toghan R, Rashwan NI. Analysis of 25-hydroxy cholecalciferol, immunoglobulin E, and vitamin D receptor single nucleotide polymorphisms (Apa1, Taq1, and Bsm1), among sample of Egyptian children with bronchial asthma: A case-control study. Pediatric Pulmonology, 2020 April; https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.24785
29.Hollams EM, Hart PH, Holt BJ, Serralha M, Parsons F, de Klerk NH, Zhang G,Sly PD, Holt PG. Vitamin D and atopy and asthma phenotypes in children: a longitudinal cohort study. Eur Respir J. 2011; 38:1320–27.
30. Comberiati P. Tsabouri S, Piacentini GL, Moser S, Minniti F, Peroni DG, Rossi GB, Piazzale LA. Is vitamin D deficiency correlated with childhood wheezing and asthma ?. Frontiers in Bioscience. 2014 Jan 6; 31-39.
31. Sathyamurthy R, Manney S, Wood A, Perkins G, Webster C, Krishna MT, MansurAH.
Does Vitamin D axis have an effect on the severity of asthma?. Thorax.2010;Volume 65, Issue Suppl 4
doi:10.1136/thx.2010.150961.14
32. JoshiVB, Dyke B, Rahman T, Townshend C, Patil V, Kurukullaratchy R.Vitamin D deficiency in the difficult asthma population; findings from a difficult asthma clinic. Thorax 2012; 67: A67 doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2012-202678.149
33. Chinellato I, Piazza M, Sandri M, et al. Vitamin D serum levels and markers of asthma control
in Italian children. J Pediatr. 2011; 158:437–441.
34. Poon AH, Mahboub B, Hamid Q.Vitamin D deficiency and severe asthma. Pharmacol Ther. 2013; 140(2): 148-155.
35. Brehm JM, Celedón JC, Soto-Quiros M E, Avila L, Hunninghake G M, Forno E, Laskey D, Sylvia JS, Hollis BW, Weiss ST, Litonjua AA. Serum Vitamin D Levels and Markers of Severity of Childhood Asthma in Costa Rica. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. Volume 179, Issue 9: http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200808-1361OC
36. Turkeli A, Ayaz O, UncuA,Ozhan B, Bas VN, Tufan AK,Yylmaz O,Yuksel H. Effects of vitamin D levels on asthma control and severity in pre-school children. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences. 2016;20:26-36.
37.Bener А, Ehlayel MS,Tulic MK, Hamid Q.Vitamin D Deficiency as a Strong Predictor of Asthma in Children. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2012;157:168–175 DOI: 10.1159/000323941
38. Segovia-Ortí R, Bennasar BA, De Sotto-Esteban D, Sanchís Cortés P, Pons J. Association between vitamin D status and allergen sensitization in pediatric subjects in the Balearic Islands. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2021 Aug;32(6):1183-1189. doi: 10.1111/pai.13513. Epub 2021 Apr 18. PMID: 33811785.
39. Chih-Yung Ch et al. Longitudinal vitamin D deficiency is inversely related to mite sensitization in early childhood. Pediatric Allergy and immunology. 2017 Dec; https://doi.org/10.1111/pai.12846
40. Baghdasaryan A et al. Sensitisation pattern to inhalant allergens in Armenian children. Clinical and Translational Allergy. 2014; 4(1):P56, DOI:http://www.ctajournal.com/content/4/S1/P56
41.Zheng YW, Chen S, Lai XX, Gjesing B, Zhong NS, Spangfort MD. Indoor mite allergen levels, specific IgE prevalence and IgE cross-inhibition pattern among asthmatic children in Haikou, southern China. Chin Med J (Engl). 2012 Sep;125(17):3059-63. PMID: 22932181.
42. Huang HW, Lue KH, Wong RH, Sun HL, Sheu JN, Lu KH. Distribution of allergens in children with different atopic disorders in central Taiwan. Acta Paediatr Taiwan. 2006 May-Jun;47(3):127-34. PMID: 17078465.
43. Montealegre F, Quiñones C, Michelen V, Bayona M, Fernández-Caldas E, Vazques O, Colón F, Chardón D, García M. Prevalence of skin reactions to aeroallergens in asthmatics of Puerto Rico PR. Health Sci J. 1997 Dec;16(4):359-67. PMID: 9580406.
44.Li J, Sun B, Huang Y, Lin X, Zhao D, Tan G, Wu J, Zhao H, Cao L, Zhong N. China Alliance of Research on Respiratory Allergic Disease-A multicentre study assessing the prevalence of sensitizations in patients with asthma and/or rhinitis in China. Allergy. 2009 Jul;64(7):1083-92. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.01967.x. Epub 2009 Feb 11. PMID: 19210346
45. Lei S, Guo-tao G. The clinical effect and mechanism of vitamin D in the treatment of bronchial asthma in preschool children. Current Immunology, 2021; 41(4): 325-30.
46. Adcock I, Amrani Y,Role of Vitamin D Deficiency in Allergic Diseases: Is this Due to an Impaired Patients’ Response to Corticosteroid Therapy?. Soj Immunology.2014February 17.
47.Gupta A, Bush A, Hawrylowicz C, Saglani S.Vitamin D and asthma in children. Paediatric Respiratory Reviews. 2012; 13(4): 236-243.
48.Tahiri KR, Najmuddin F, Avasthi Kh. Effect of vitamin d therapy on the pulmonary functions in pediatric asthma and allergic rhinitis. European Respiratory Journal. 2016; 48: PA1244; doi: 10.1183/13993003.congress-2016.PA1244
49. Menon B, Nima G, Dogra V, Mittal A, Kaur Ch, Mittal U. Evaluation of vitamin D in bronchial asthma and the effect of vitamin D supplementation on asthma severity and control: A randomised control trial. European Respiratory Journal. 2014; 44: P4049.
50. Sannette C, Agrawal HDK. Vitamin D and Bronchial Asthma: An Overview of Data From the Past 5 Years. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2017.04.002
51. Augusto A. LitonjuaMD, Vitamin D Deficiency as a risk factor for childhood allergic disease and asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012 April ; 12(2): 179–185. doi:10.1097/ACI.0b013e3283507927
52. Martineau AR, Cates CJ, Urashima M, Jensen M, Griffiths AP, Nurmatov U, Sheikh A, Griffiths CJ.Vitamin D for the management of asthma. Cochrane Airways Group. 2016 Sept 6; DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011511.pub2
53. Pfeffer PE , Mann EH, Hornsby E, Chambers ES, Chen Y-H, Rice L, Hawrylowicz CM. Vitamin D Influences Asthmatic Pathology through Its Action on Diverse Immunological Pathways. AnnalsATS. 201405;204AW. PubMed: 25525739https://doi.org/10.1513
54. Bokobza I, El Hadi N, Bush A, Makrinioti H. Can vitamin D3 supplementation reduce the time to severe asthma exacerbations in children with asthma? Breathe (Sheff). 2021 Sep;17(3):210071. doi: 10.1183/20734735.0071-2021. PMID: 35035547; PMCID: PMC8753645.
2. Global Burden of disease due to asthma,The Global Asthma Report 2014.
3. Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). 2021 GINA Global strategy for asthma
management and prevention 2021 update. 2021 GINA Main Report - Global Initiative for Asthma - GINA (ginasthma.org).
4. Ernst E, Fabio M. Paediatric Respiratory Medicine, 2013 (first edition), published by ERS;
5. Проф.д-р Дејан Докиќ и соработници. “Алергологија”. 2017; Скопје.
6. O’Byrne P, Persson CG, Church MK. Cellular and mediator mechanisms of the early
phase response. Allergy. 2001;325-36.
7. Papadopoulos NG, et al. International consensus on (ICON) pediatric asthma. Allergy.2012; 67:976-997 doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2012.02865.x.
8. Hoxha M, Zoto M, Deda L, VyshkaG.Vitamin D and Its Role as a Protective Factor in Allergy. International Scholarly Research Notices. 2014; Article ID 951946:7 pages
9. Giustina AD, Landi M, Bellini F, Bosoni M, Ferrante G, Onorari M, Travaglini A, Pingitore G, PassalacquaG.Vitamin D, allergies and asthma: focus on pediatric patients.World Allergy Organization Journal. 2014; 7:27.
10. Stelmach I, Jerzyńska J, Podlecka D. Immunomodulatory Effect of Vitamin D in Children with Allergic Diseases. 2017 Apr; DOI: 10.5772/65072.
11. DeLuca HF. Overview of general physiologic features and functions of vitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Dec;80(6 Suppl):1689–96.
12.Kanis JA. Vitamin D metabolism and its clinical application. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1982;64(5):542–560.
13.Bikle DD. Vitamin D metabolism, mechanism of action, and clinical applications. Chem Biol. 2014 Mar 20;21(3):319–329. doi: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2013.12.016. Epub 2014 Feb 13.
14. Jones G, Strugnell SA, DeLuca HF. Current understanding of the molecular actions of vitamin D. Physiol Rev. 1998 Oct;78(4):1193–1231.
15. Kimmel-Jehan C, Darwish HM, Strugnell SA, Jehan F, Wiefling B, DeLuca HF. DNA bending is induced by binding of vitamin D receptor-retinoid X receptor heterodimers to vitamin D response elements. J Cell Biochem. 1999 Aug 1;74(2):220–228.
16. von Essen MR, Kongsbak M, Schjerling P, Olgaard K, Odum N, Geisler C. Vitamin D controls T cell antigen receptor signaling and activation of human T cells. Nat Immunol. 2010 Apr;11(4):344–349.
17. Deluca HF, Cantorna MT. Vitamin D: its role and uses in immunology. FASEB J. 2001 Dec;15(14):2579–85.
18.Camargo CA Jr, Rifas-Shiman SL, Litonjua AA, Rich-Edwards JW, Weiss ST, Gold DR, Kleinman K, Gillman MW. Maternal intake of vitamin D during pregnancy and risk of recurrent wheeze in children at 3 years of age. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Mar;85(3):788–795.
19. Devereux G, Litonjua AA, Turner SW, Craig LC, McNeill G, Martindale S, Helms PJ, Seaton A, Weiss ST. Maternal vitamin D intake during pregnancy and early childhood wheezing. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Mar;85(3):853–859.
20.Jerzynska J, Stelmach W, Rychlik B, Lechańska J, Podlecka D, Stelmach I. The clinical effect of vitamin D supplementation combined with grass-specific sublingual immunotherapy in children with allergic rhinitis. Allergy Asthma Proc. 2016 Mar;37(2):105–114.
21.Stelmach I, Majak P, Jerzynska J, Podlecka D, Stelmach W, Polańska K, Gromadzińska J, Wąsowicz W, Hanke W. Cord serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D correlates with early childhood viral-induced wheezing. Respir Med. 2015 Jan;109(1):38–43.
22. Majak P, Jerzyńska J, Smejda K, Stelmach I, Timler D, Stelmach W. Correlation of vitamin D with Foxp3 induction and steroid-sparing effect of immunotherapy in asthmatic children. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2012 Nov;109(5):329–335.
23. Esposito S, Lelii M. Vitamin D and respiratory tract infections in childhood. BMC Infect Dis. 2015 Oct 28;15:487.
24. Najada AS, Habashneh MS, Khader M. The frequency of nutritional rickets among hospitalized infants and its relation to respiratory diseases. J Trop Pediatr. 2004 Dec;50(6):364–368.
25.Principi N, Bianchini S, Baggi E, Esposito S. Implications of maternal vitamin D deficiency for the fetus, the neonate and the young infant. Eur J Nutr. 2013 Apr;52(3):859–867.
26. Poon AH, Laprise C, Lemire M, Montpetit A, Sinnett D, Schurr E, Hudson TJ. Association of vitamin D receptor genetic variants with susceptibility to asthma and atopy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004 Nov 1;170(9):967–973.
27.Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2010.
28. El-Abd Ahmed A, Hassan MH, Toghan R, Rashwan NI. Analysis of 25-hydroxy cholecalciferol, immunoglobulin E, and vitamin D receptor single nucleotide polymorphisms (Apa1, Taq1, and Bsm1), among sample of Egyptian children with bronchial asthma: A case-control study. Pediatric Pulmonology, 2020 April; https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.24785
29.Hollams EM, Hart PH, Holt BJ, Serralha M, Parsons F, de Klerk NH, Zhang G,Sly PD, Holt PG. Vitamin D and atopy and asthma phenotypes in children: a longitudinal cohort study. Eur Respir J. 2011; 38:1320–27.
30. Comberiati P. Tsabouri S, Piacentini GL, Moser S, Minniti F, Peroni DG, Rossi GB, Piazzale LA. Is vitamin D deficiency correlated with childhood wheezing and asthma ?. Frontiers in Bioscience. 2014 Jan 6; 31-39.
31. Sathyamurthy R, Manney S, Wood A, Perkins G, Webster C, Krishna MT, MansurAH.
Does Vitamin D axis have an effect on the severity of asthma?. Thorax.2010;Volume 65, Issue Suppl 4
doi:10.1136/thx.2010.150961.14
32. JoshiVB, Dyke B, Rahman T, Townshend C, Patil V, Kurukullaratchy R.Vitamin D deficiency in the difficult asthma population; findings from a difficult asthma clinic. Thorax 2012; 67: A67 doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2012-202678.149
33. Chinellato I, Piazza M, Sandri M, et al. Vitamin D serum levels and markers of asthma control
in Italian children. J Pediatr. 2011; 158:437–441.
34. Poon AH, Mahboub B, Hamid Q.Vitamin D deficiency and severe asthma. Pharmacol Ther. 2013; 140(2): 148-155.
35. Brehm JM, Celedón JC, Soto-Quiros M E, Avila L, Hunninghake G M, Forno E, Laskey D, Sylvia JS, Hollis BW, Weiss ST, Litonjua AA. Serum Vitamin D Levels and Markers of Severity of Childhood Asthma in Costa Rica. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. Volume 179, Issue 9: http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200808-1361OC
36. Turkeli A, Ayaz O, UncuA,Ozhan B, Bas VN, Tufan AK,Yylmaz O,Yuksel H. Effects of vitamin D levels on asthma control and severity in pre-school children. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences. 2016;20:26-36.
37.Bener А, Ehlayel MS,Tulic MK, Hamid Q.Vitamin D Deficiency as a Strong Predictor of Asthma in Children. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2012;157:168–175 DOI: 10.1159/000323941
38. Segovia-Ortí R, Bennasar BA, De Sotto-Esteban D, Sanchís Cortés P, Pons J. Association between vitamin D status and allergen sensitization in pediatric subjects in the Balearic Islands. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2021 Aug;32(6):1183-1189. doi: 10.1111/pai.13513. Epub 2021 Apr 18. PMID: 33811785.
39. Chih-Yung Ch et al. Longitudinal vitamin D deficiency is inversely related to mite sensitization in early childhood. Pediatric Allergy and immunology. 2017 Dec; https://doi.org/10.1111/pai.12846
40. Baghdasaryan A et al. Sensitisation pattern to inhalant allergens in Armenian children. Clinical and Translational Allergy. 2014; 4(1):P56, DOI:http://www.ctajournal.com/content/4/S1/P56
41.Zheng YW, Chen S, Lai XX, Gjesing B, Zhong NS, Spangfort MD. Indoor mite allergen levels, specific IgE prevalence and IgE cross-inhibition pattern among asthmatic children in Haikou, southern China. Chin Med J (Engl). 2012 Sep;125(17):3059-63. PMID: 22932181.
42. Huang HW, Lue KH, Wong RH, Sun HL, Sheu JN, Lu KH. Distribution of allergens in children with different atopic disorders in central Taiwan. Acta Paediatr Taiwan. 2006 May-Jun;47(3):127-34. PMID: 17078465.
43. Montealegre F, Quiñones C, Michelen V, Bayona M, Fernández-Caldas E, Vazques O, Colón F, Chardón D, García M. Prevalence of skin reactions to aeroallergens in asthmatics of Puerto Rico PR. Health Sci J. 1997 Dec;16(4):359-67. PMID: 9580406.
44.Li J, Sun B, Huang Y, Lin X, Zhao D, Tan G, Wu J, Zhao H, Cao L, Zhong N. China Alliance of Research on Respiratory Allergic Disease-A multicentre study assessing the prevalence of sensitizations in patients with asthma and/or rhinitis in China. Allergy. 2009 Jul;64(7):1083-92. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.01967.x. Epub 2009 Feb 11. PMID: 19210346
45. Lei S, Guo-tao G. The clinical effect and mechanism of vitamin D in the treatment of bronchial asthma in preschool children. Current Immunology, 2021; 41(4): 325-30.
46. Adcock I, Amrani Y,Role of Vitamin D Deficiency in Allergic Diseases: Is this Due to an Impaired Patients’ Response to Corticosteroid Therapy?. Soj Immunology.2014February 17.
47.Gupta A, Bush A, Hawrylowicz C, Saglani S.Vitamin D and asthma in children. Paediatric Respiratory Reviews. 2012; 13(4): 236-243.
48.Tahiri KR, Najmuddin F, Avasthi Kh. Effect of vitamin d therapy on the pulmonary functions in pediatric asthma and allergic rhinitis. European Respiratory Journal. 2016; 48: PA1244; doi: 10.1183/13993003.congress-2016.PA1244
49. Menon B, Nima G, Dogra V, Mittal A, Kaur Ch, Mittal U. Evaluation of vitamin D in bronchial asthma and the effect of vitamin D supplementation on asthma severity and control: A randomised control trial. European Respiratory Journal. 2014; 44: P4049.
50. Sannette C, Agrawal HDK. Vitamin D and Bronchial Asthma: An Overview of Data From the Past 5 Years. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2017.04.002
51. Augusto A. LitonjuaMD, Vitamin D Deficiency as a risk factor for childhood allergic disease and asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012 April ; 12(2): 179–185. doi:10.1097/ACI.0b013e3283507927
52. Martineau AR, Cates CJ, Urashima M, Jensen M, Griffiths AP, Nurmatov U, Sheikh A, Griffiths CJ.Vitamin D for the management of asthma. Cochrane Airways Group. 2016 Sept 6; DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011511.pub2
53. Pfeffer PE , Mann EH, Hornsby E, Chambers ES, Chen Y-H, Rice L, Hawrylowicz CM. Vitamin D Influences Asthmatic Pathology through Its Action on Diverse Immunological Pathways. AnnalsATS. 201405;204AW. PubMed: 25525739https://doi.org/10.1513
54. Bokobza I, El Hadi N, Bush A, Makrinioti H. Can vitamin D3 supplementation reduce the time to severe asthma exacerbations in children with asthma? Breathe (Sheff). 2021 Sep;17(3):210071. doi: 10.1183/20734735.0071-2021. PMID: 35035547; PMCID: PMC8753645.
Published
2022-05-04
How to Cite
MICEVSKA, Vesna et al.
VITAMIN D AND ASTHMA IN CHILDHOOD.
Journal of Morphological Sciences, [S.l.], v. 5, n. 1, p. 11-19, may 2022.
ISSN 2545-4706.
Available at: <https://jms.mk/jms/article/view/vol5no1-2>. Date accessed: 19 apr. 2024.
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